If you have been reading about vaccine adjuvant and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Last reviewed on 2026-01-24. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
Identity and purity are normally confirmed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. The expected mass for the acetylated 28-residue peptide is close to 3108 daltons, and a mass shift indicates a modification or truncation. Peptide mapping after enzymatic digestion can resolve sequence-level questions. Counter-ion content, water content, and residual solvents are separate quality attributes that a certificate of analysis may or may not report. Aggregation is monitored by size-exclusion chromatography when relevant.
Thymosin alpha-1 is supplied as a lyophilized powder in most research settings. The solid dissolves readily in water and in common aqueous buffers, and it is typically reconstituted shortly before use. Solutions are clear and colourless at ordinary working concentrations. Because the peptide is hygroscopic, weighing and reconstitution are usually performed with minimal exposure to ambient air. Aliquots are prepared to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, and working solutions are kept cold.
Long-term storage is generally at minus twenty degrees Celsius or colder, preferably desiccated and protected from light. Lyophilized material is more stable than reconstituted solution, which degrades faster at room temperature. Stability depends on pH, ionic strength, and the presence of oxidising agents. Published stability data for the peptide are limited, so storage claims in catalogues should be treated as general guidance rather than measured guarantees. Freeze-thaw cycles are kept to a minimum.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
Laboratory work indicates that the peptide acts on cells of both the innate and adaptive immune systems. Reported effects include signalling through Toll-like receptors on dendritic cells, enhanced T-cell maturation, and increased natural killer cell activity. These actions are described largely from cell-culture and animal experiments, and the precise receptor-level events remain incompletely defined. Studies in humans have generally measured immune markers rather than a single defined molecular target. The resulting picture remains partly descriptive.
Clinical research has examined the peptide in chronic hepatitis B and C, as a vaccine adjuvant, and in sepsis and oncology settings. Results across trials have been mixed, and several studies were small or conducted under differing protocols. Regulatory status varies by country, and the compound is not approved in every jurisdiction where it is studied. Evidence for any single indication should be read with attention to sample size and endpoint choice.
Thymosin alpha-1 is a 28-residue peptide first isolated from thymus tissue in the 1970s. It corresponds to the N-terminal portion of thymosin beta-4, from which it is cleaved in vivo. The peptide carries an acetyl group at its N-terminus, a modification that affects its charge and stability. Synthetic material produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis is chemically identical to the natural fragment and is the form used in research and clinical studies.
Quantifying thymosin alpha-1 in a sample usually relies on reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The peptide lacks strong chromophores, so detection often occurs at 214 nm, where the peptide backbone absorbs. Mass spectrometry provides confirmatory identification and can detect sequence variants or truncations. Immunoassays have been used in biological matrices, but they may cross-react with related fragments. For purity assessment, chromatographic peak area gives the main component percentage, while mass accuracy verifies molecular identity.
The lyophilized peptide is generally stable for extended periods when kept cold and dry. Once dissolved, aqueous solutions are less stable; hydrolysis, oxidation, and aggregation can degrade the material. Storage at -20 °C or lower slows these processes. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are best avoided because they can promote aggregation. The exact shelf life depends on formulation, pH, and concentration, so stability studies are typically performed for each specific product.
Clinical research has examined the peptide in chronic hepatitis B and C, as a vaccine adjuvant, and in sepsis and oncology settings. Findings across trials are mixed; some report changes in selected immune markers, while others find no clear clinical benefit. Many studies are small and define outcomes differently, which limits comparison. Regulatory approval is confined to a few countries, and the compound is not an approved drug in the United States or most of Europe.
Overall evidence quality varies considerably. A large share of published reports come from single centers, rely on surrogate immunological markers, or lack adequate control groups. Systematic reviews have highlighted this heterogeneity as a barrier to pooling results. Open questions include which patients, if any, might benefit, what treatment duration is appropriate, and whether any effect is independent of standard care. The peptide is often described as an immune modulator rather than a therapy for one disease, which complicates confirmatory trial design.
Thymosin alpha 1 was identified in 1977 as a component of thymosin fraction 5, a heterogeneous preparation used in early studies of thymic function. Investigators purified the active material and determined its amino acid sequence, which enabled chemical synthesis. Work in the following decades concentrated on T-cell maturation and immune reconstitution in animals and small human cohorts. Early preparations varied in composition, so results from that period are difficult to compare with studies using defined synthetic peptide.
The peptide occurs naturally in thymic tissue and has been detected in serum and other biological fluids. Reported concentrations are low, and reliable measurement generally requires immunoassay or mass spectrometry with an enrichment step. It is released from a larger precursor, prothymosin alpha, by proteolytic cleavage, although the enzymes involved are not fully characterized. Whether circulating levels reflect thymic output specifically remains an open question.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a 28-amino-acid peptide first isolated from thymosin fraction 5, a bovine thymic extract. Its sequence begins with an acetylated serine residue and carries a high proportion of acidic residues, so the molecule has a net negative charge near neutral pH. Despite the shared name, it is unrelated in sequence to the thymosin beta family. Synthetic material prepared by solid-phase peptide synthesis is identical in sequence to the natural peptide.
Several names appear in the literature for this peptide, including thymalfasin and the abbreviation T-alpha-1. Naming conventions differ among research articles, regulatory documents, and supplier catalogs, which complicates literature searches. Both synthetic and recombinant production routes yield a peptide with the same 28-residue sequence as the thymic isolate. Because the thymosin label also covers unrelated peptides, sources should be compared by sequence rather than by name alone.
=== Evermont: The Royal Rumble === First aired: 2 December 2010 Meet Evermont, a wannabe rapper who says he can "smell the bitch" in his victims. He calls himself "the king" and makes life miserable for Jesse and Colton. Mayhem Miller brings in professional MMA Brazilian jiu-jitsu fighter Bobby "King" Green who has a record of 14 wins and 3 losses to put Evermont in his place. In the first round, Bobby Green made him tap out five times. In the second round, Evermont got scared and didn't continue into the second round. He was the second bully to withdraw from the second round, the first being Emil. Jesse and Colton won $10,000.
=== Types === Tenocytes: The mature tendon cells responsible for maintaining tendon structure and function. Tendon Progenitor Cells (TPCs): These cells are involved in tendon repair and regeneration, particularly after injury. Fibroblasts: A more general type of connective tissue cell, fibroblasts in tendons also contribute to the synthesis of ECM components.
=== Poultry === Mature chickens show signs three weeks after being fed a deficient diet. In young chicks, it can appear before two weeks of age. Onset is sudden in young chicks, with anorexia and an unsteady gait. Later on, locomotor signs begin, with an apparent paralysis of the flexor of the toes. The characteristic position is called "stargazing", with the affected animal sitting on its hocks with its head thrown back in a posture called opisthotonos. Response to administration of the vitamin is rather quick, occurring a few hours later.
(2005), philanthropist, investor, activist, son of John Kluge '37 Alana Mayo (2006), president of Orion Pictures Liesel Pritzker Simmons (2006), former child actress, A Little Princess; granddaughter of businessman Abram Nicholas Pritzker, heiress to the Hyatt hotels fortune, philanthropist Wayne Ting (2006), CEO of Lime Marco Zappacosta (2007), co-founder and CEO of Thumbtack, son of Logitech founder Pierluigi Zappacosta Adam Pritzker (2008), co-founder of General Assembly, grandson of Jay Pritzker and member of the Pritzker family Jared Hecht (2009), co-founder of GroupMe Ariana Rockefeller (2009), fashion designer and great-great-granddaughter of John D. Rockefeller Zach Sims* (2012), co-founder of Codecademy Beverly Leon (2014), former midfielder of Sunderland A.F.C. Ladies, CEO of Local Civics Nicole LaPointe Jameson (2016), CEO of Evil Geniuses Korawad Chearavanont* (2017), Thai internet entrepreneur and grandson of Dhanin Chearavanont
MedPlus was founded in 2006 by Madhukar Gangadi. The company's first store was launched in Hyderabad. Initially operating under the Aushadhi brand name, it was rebranded as MedPlus after the opening of the first 48 stores. The company opened pharmacies in the western states of Gujarat and Rajasthan in 2007 but had to shut down and exit operations due to recurring losses. It relaunched stores in Ahmedabad, Gujarat in 2014. In 2008, it opened diagnostics centers in five cities under its subsidiary MedPlus Pathlabs. In 2015, it started its e-pharmacy division. In December 2021, MedPlus Health Services launched its initial public offering (IPO) and got listed on the Indian stock exchanges.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== History == CPA was first synthesized in 1961 by Rudolf Wiechert, a Schering employee, and together with Friedmund Neumann in Berlin, they filed for a patent for CPA as "progestational agent" in 1962. The antiandrogenic activity of CPA was discovered serendipitously by Hamada, Neumann, and Karl Junkmann in 1963. Along with the steroidal antiandrogens benorterone (17α-methyl-B-nortestosterone; SKF-7690), cyproterone, BOMT (Ro 7–2340), and trimethyltrienolone (R-2956) and the nonsteroidal antiandrogens flutamide and DIMP (Ro 7–8117), CPA was one of the first antiandrogens to be discovered and researched. CPA was initially developed as a progestogen for the prevention of threatened abortion. As part of its development, it was assessed for androgenic activity to ensure that it would not produce teratogenic effects in female fetuses. The drug was administered to pregnant rats and its effects on the rat fetuses were studied. To the surprise of the researchers, all of the rat pups born appeared to be female. After 20 female rat pups in a row had been counted, it was clear that this could not be a chance occurrence. The rat pups were further evaluated and it was found that, in terms of karyotype, about 50% were actually males. The male rat pups had been feminized, and this resultant finding constituted the discovery of the powerful antiandrogenic activity of CPA. A year after patent approval in 1965, Neumann published additional evidence of CPA's antiandrogenic effect in rats; he reported an "organizational effect of CPA on the brain".
Hydroxynorketamine (HNK), or 6-hydroxynorketamine, is a minor metabolite of the anesthetic, dissociative, and antidepressant drug ketamine. It is formed by hydroxylation of the intermediate norketamine, another metabolite of ketamine. As of late 2019, (2R,6R)-HNK is in clinical trials for the treatment of depression. The major metabolite of ketamine is norketamine (80%). Norketamine is secondarily converted into 4-, 5-, and 6-hydroxynorketamines (15%), mainly HNK (6-hydroxynorketamine). Ketamine is also transformed into hydroxyketamine (5%). As such, bioactivated HNK comprises less than 15% of a dose of ketamine.
== Commercial activities == Borchers co-founded MRM Proteomics Inc. in 2010 as a spin-off commercializing proteomics technology developed at the University of Victoria–Genome BC Proteomics Centre. He serves as a scientific advisor to the company and chairs its board of directors. MRM Proteomics commercializes targeted proteomics assay kits, marketed under the name PeptiQuant, applying the MRM-based quantitation methods developed in Borchers' academic laboratories, and is developing kits based on the SysQuan method. The company has since built a series of industry partnerships around this technology: it granted the lung cancer diagnostics firm Biodesix rights to use its iMALDI technology in blood-based diagnostic test development in 2018, and entered a co-marketing agreement with Agilent Technologies in 2022 to develop targeted proteomics assay kits for Agilent's mass spectrometry platforms. In 2023, a project led by Borchers with MRM Proteomics received $3.03 million through Genome Canada's Genomic Applications Partnership Program to develop "MutaQuant" mass spectrometry kits measuring the protein-level impact of around 1,000 known cancer mutations, to be commercialized by MRM Proteomics and Agilent. In addition to MRM Proteomics, Borchers co-founded Molecular You, a Vancouver-based company offering blood-based multi-omic health assessments, where he serves as chief lab analytics officer, and Creative Molecules, Inc.
==== As a later synthesis by monks ==== Hajime Nakamura has argued that we should search the Sutta Nipata for the earliest form of dependent origination since it is the most ancient source. According to Nakamura, "the main framework of later theories of Dependent Origination" can be reconstructed from the Sutta Nipata as follows: avidya, tanha, upadana, bhava, jaramarana. Lambert Schmitthausen has also argued that the twelve-fold list is a synthesis from three previous lists, arguing that the three lifetimes-interpretation is an unintended consequence of this synthesis.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Radioactive decay results in a reduction of summed rest mass, once the released energy (the disintegration energy) has escaped in some way. Although decay energy is sometimes defined as associated with the difference between the mass of the parent nuclide products and the mass of the decay products, this is true only of rest mass measurements, where some energy has been removed from the product system. This is true because the decay energy must always carry mass with it, wherever it appears (see mass in special relativity) according to the formula E = mc2. The decay energy is initially released as the energy of emitted photons plus the kinetic energy of massive emitted particles (that is, particles that have rest mass). If these particles come to thermal equilibrium with their surroundings and photons are absorbed, then the decay energy is transformed to thermal energy, which retains its mass. Decay energy, therefore, remains associated with a certain measure of the mass of the decay system, called invariant mass, which does not change during the decay, even though the energy of decay is distributed among decay particles. The energy of photons, the kinetic energy of emitted particles, and, later, the thermal energy of the surrounding matter, all contribute to the invariant mass of the system. Thus, while the sum of the rest masses of the particles is not conserved in radioactive decay, the system mass and system invariant mass (and also the system total energy) is conserved throughout any decay process.
=== La Canonja, Spain accident === On 14 January 2020 in an industrial estate near Tarragona, an explosion of an ethoxylation reactor owned by the chemical company Industrias Quimicas de Oxido de Etileno (IQOXE, part of the CL Industrial Group) occurred. The accident launched substantial debris over a radius of about two and a half kilometers, one piece penetrating a distant home and killing an occupant. It is reported that at least three people were killed and seven injured as a direct result of the explosion. The company was, until the time of the explosion the only producer of ethylene oxide in Spain with an installed capacity of 140,000 tons/year. Half of that production was used to manufacture ethylene glycol for PET production. The accident will be investigated under EU regulations within the context of the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work.
Solomon campaigned for subsidised medical services, directly influencing the Labour concept of the welfare state and the creation of the British National Health Service in 1948 Muriel Spark, novelist (Jewish father, possible Jewish mother; converted to Catholicism later in life) Bob Stanley (born Robert Andrew Shukman; 25 December 1964); musician, journalist, author, film producer; member of indie pop group Saint Etienne and music journalist for NME, Melody Maker, Mojo, The Guardian and The Times, as well as writing three books on music and football; also has a career as a DJ and as a producer of record labels, and has collaborated on a series of films about London. His second publication, Yeah! Yeah! Yeah!: The Story of Modern Pop, published by Faber & Faber; third publication Let's Do It: The Birth of Pop Music: A History, published by Pegasus. George Steiner, FBA (April 23, 1929 – February 3, 2020) author, literary critic, essayist, philosopher, novelist and educator; wrote about relationship between language, literature and society, as well as impact of the Holocaust; ranked "among the great minds in today's literary world"; was Professor University of Geneva (1974–94), Professor of Comparative Literature and Fellow in the University of Oxford (1994–95), Professor of Poetry in Harvard University (2001–02) and Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
Lyophilized powder is normally kept at minus twenty degrees Celsius or below, in a sealed container, desiccated and away from light. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are usually refrigerated and used quickly. Repeated temperature cycling should be avoided.